Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 These pages give diagrammed examples of basic Lojban sentence structures. The most general pattern is covered first, followed by successive variations on the basic components of the Lojban sentence. There are many more capabilities not covered in these examples. A brief pronunciation guide and Lojban glossary will be found at the end of this paper. I. THE LOJBAN SENTENCE STRUCTURE A Lojban sentence expresses a relationship (bridi), normally claiming that the relationship holds (that it is 'true'). A bridi relationship consists of sev- eral ideas or objects called arguments (sumti), which are related by a predicate relation (selbri). The following uses the Lojban terms bridi, sumti, and selbri, because it is best to come to understand them independent of the English associations of the corresponding words. Some words used as sumti: mi I/me/my, we/us/our do you/your ti this/this-here/this one's, these/these here/these ones' ta that/that-there/that one's, those/those ones' tu that yonder, those yonder zo'e unspecified value (used when a sumti is unimportant or obvious) sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally added. Names may be expressed as sumti, labelled with "la": la meris. the one/ones named Mary la djan. the one/ones named John (Other Lojban spelling versions are possible for names from other lan- guages.) Some words used to indicate selbri relations: vecnu x1 (seller) sells x2 (goods) to x3 (buyer) for x4 (price) tavla x1 (talker) talks to x2 (audience) about x3 (topic) in language x4 blari'o x1 (object/light source) is blue-green melbi x1 (object/idea) is beautiful to x2 (observer) by standard x3 We will describe these and other possible sumti and selbri in more detail below. Conventions: The following conventions will be used to show the structure of Lojban sen- tences in diagrams: - The selbri relation will be double-underlined. - The sumti arguments will be single-underlined. - Optional separator/terminator words are placed in square brackets. They may be omitted if so bracketed. The general rule is that these may be omit- ted if and only if no grammatical ambiguity results. Each such word serves as an end marker for particular structures, making the overall structure of the sentence very clear. Basic structure of a Lojban sentence: sumti sumti ... sumti [cu] selbri sumti sumti ... sumti [vau] ----- ----- ----- ====== ----- ----- ----- - Normally, there must be at least one sumti before the selbri. - Each selbri relation has a specifically defined place structure that de- fines the role of each sumti in the bridi relationship, based on its posi- tion in order. In the examples above, that order was expressed by la- belling the positions x1, x2, x3, and x4. - "cu" acts as a separator after at least one preceding sumti to clearly mark the selbri. As the diagram indicates, it may often be omitted. There will be examples below. - "vau" goes at the end of the sentence, indicating that no more sumti will follow. It usually may be omitted. Sentence examples: mi [cu] vecnu ti ta zo'e [vau] -- ===== -- -- ---- seller-x1 sells goods-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 I sell this to that for some price. I sell this-thing/these-things to that-buyer/those-buyers. (The price is obvious or unimportant.) - Both the "cu" and the "vau" are optional in this example and could be omitted: - When an unspecified sumti ("zo'e") is at the end of a sentence, it may be omitted. - Normally, there will be one sumti (the x1) before the selbri. There may be more than one: mi ti [cu] vecnu ta [vau] -- -- ===== -- seller-x1 goods-sold-x2 sells buyer-x3 I this sell to that. Translates as stilted or poetic English: I, this thing, do sell to that buyer. Usually, more than one sumti before the selbri will be for style or for em- phasis on the sumti that are out-of-place from their normal position. (Native speakers of languages other than English may prefer such orders.) Observatives: If there is no sumti before the selbri, then it is understood that the x1 sumti value is equivalent to "zo'e"; i.e. unimportant or obvious, and therefore omitted. Any sumti after the selbri start counting from x2, x3, x4 ...: ta [cu] melbi [vau] -- ===== object/idea-x1 is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) That/Those is/are beautiful. That is beautiful. (or) Those are beautiful. When the x1 is omitted: melbi [vau] ------------ ===== (Unspecified) is-beautiful (to someone by some standard) melbi Beautiful! (or) It's beautiful! Omitting the x1 adds emphasis to the selbri relation, which has become first and foremost in the sentence. This kind of sentence is termed an ob- servative, because it is usually stated by someone when they first observe or take note of the relation, and wish to quickly communicate it to someone else. Commonly understood English observatives include "Smoke!" upon see- ing smoke or smelling the odor, or "Car!" to a person crossing the street who might be in danger. Any Lojban selbri can be an observative if no sumti appear before the selbri. "cu" does not occur in an observative; "cu" is a separator, and there must be a sumti before the selbri that needs to be kept separate, for it to be used. With no sumti preceding the selbri, "cu" is not permitted. True/false (yes/no) questions (the word "xu"): xu question sentence (Is-it-true-that...): xu mi [cu] vecnu ti ta [vau] -- ===== -- -- Is-it-true? I sell this that. Is-it-true-that I sell this to that? "xu" has a very unrestricted grammar, and is permitted virtually anywhere in a sentence. At the beginning of the sentence, "xu" asks about the truth of the bridi relationship. Elsewhere, in a sentence, "xu" attaches to the immediately preceding word (or the structure implied by that preceding word, when it is the marker for a structure). Thus, also after the "vau" ending the sentence, "xu" asks about the entire bridi (the "vau" cannot be omitted if "xu" is to appear 'after' it). "xu" appearing after a sumti questions whether the bridi relationship ex- pressed by the sentence is true, in particular for that sumti value: mi [cu] vecnu ti xu ta [vau] -- ===== -- <- -- I sell this Is-it-true? that. Is-it-true-that I sell THIS (as opposed to something else) to that? Similarly, "xu" following "vecnu" in the above example would question the truth of the bridi relationship by specifically asking whether "sell" is a true relation between the sumti. We will discuss how to answer a "xu" true/false question below in the sec- tion on selbri. Varying sumti order: There are ways to vary the order of sumti from the numerical order speci- fied by the place structure. A sumti may be placed out of numerical order by labelling it in front with a tag indicating the actual place structure numerical position of the sumti. The structure is thus of the form "fi sumti" (where the "fi" category word shows which of the existing sumti places is being used, by number: fa/1st sumti - x1 fe/2nd sumti - x2 fi/3rd sumti - x3 fo/4th sumti - x4 fu/5th sumti - x5 One reason for using these tags is to skip a place structure place without having to insert a "zo'e" for each skipped place: mi [cu] tavla fo la lojban. [vau] -- ===== .> ---------- talker talk x4= language I talk in-language Lojban. I talk in Lojban (to someone about some topic). which is equivalent to: mi [cu] tavla zo'e zo'e la lojban. [vau] -- ===== ---- ---- ---------- talker talk audience topic language I talk to unspecified about unspecified in Lojban. I talk in Lojban (to someone about some topic). After a "fi" tag sets the place number, any later sumti places continue the numbering consecutively: mi [cu] tavla fi ta la lojban. [vau] -- ===== .> -- ---------- talker talk x3=topic language-x4 I talk about that in-language Lojban. I talk about that in Lojban (to someone unspecified). Another reason to use "fi" tags is to change emphasis; listeners focus most closely on the sumti at the beginning of a sentence. fi la lojban. [cu] tavla fa mi do [vau] .> ---------- ===== .> -- -- x3=topic talk x1=talker audience-x2 About Lojban talk I to you. It's Lojban, that I talk to you about (in an unspecified language). There are other ways of rearranging the sumti of a sentence that will be discussed below. Note that in all examples where a sumti is omitted, the Lojbanist remembers that there is an unspoken and unspecified value for each of the omitted place structure places. An observative can be formed by using "fa" to move the first (x1) sumti to the position after the selbri. melbi fa ti [vau] ===== .> -- beautiful x1=this Beautiful this-is (to someone by some standard). Beautiful, it is! Basic structure of an utterance: People don't always say just one sentence. Lojban has a specific structure for talk or writing that is longer than one sentence. The entirety of a given speech event or written text is called an utterance. sentence .i sentence .i sentence [...] .i sentence ni'o sentence .i sentence .i sentence .i sentence [...] .i sentence ni'o sentence .i sentence [...] .i sentence [fa'o] "ni'o" separates paragraphs (covering different topics of discussion). In a long text or utterance, the topical structure of the text may be indi- cated by multiple "ni'o"s, with perhaps "ni'oni'oni'o" used to indicate a chapter, "ni'oni'o" to indicate a section, and a single "ni'o" to indicate a subtopic corresponding to a single English paragraph. ".i" separates sentences. ".i" is sometimes compounded with words that modify the exact meaning (the semantics) of the sentence in the context of the utterance. ("xu", discussed above, is one such word - it turns the sentence from a statement to a question of truth.) When more than one per- son is talking, a new speaker will usually omit the ".i" even though she/he may be continuing on the same topic. It is still OK for a new speaker to say the ".i" before continuing; indeed it is encouraged for maximum clarity (since it is possible the 2nd speaker might merely be adding words onto the end of the first speaker's sentence). A good translation for ".i" is the "and" used in run-on sentences when people are talking informally: "I did this, and then I did that, and ..., and ...". "fa'o" is an optional end-of-utterance marker, used primarily in computer input. It is not needed in human speech. You may now see why the "vau" at the end of the sentence can generally be omitted. Since the following word will usually be an ".i" or a "ni'o" starting a new sentence or paragraph, there is no possibility of ambiguity. These separators prevent the sumti at the beginning of the next sentence from being mistaken as a trailing sumti of this sentence. Punctuation: Note that Lojban has no mandatory punctuation marks. Because Lojban speech EXACTLY matches the written text representing that speech, all 'punctuation' that is used in English to show sentence structure, ques- tions, exclamations or tone of voice, and even quotations must be expressed in Lojban as actual words that are spoken. The apostrophe (') is a letter representing a sound in the language. The period (.) is an optional reminder to the reader that a pause (which may be very short) is required between sounds at that point. These may be omitted, but are almost always printed. Capitalization indicates unusual stress in the pronunciation of a name from a language other than Lojban. It is NOT used at the beginning of a sen- tence. Commas (,) indicate unusual syllable breaks in pronunciation of a name or other word. There are some optional conventions that allow certain punctuation symbols to appear to clarify printed text, making it easier to read. These punctu- ation symbols ALWAYS appear associated with the printed word representing that punctuation symbol. Thus a "xu" question may be marked with a ques- tion mark immediately after the "xu" (or immediately before the "xu", pos- sibly inverted, like the Spanish punctuation style). Other questions may similarly be marked with a question mark after the word indicating the question - NOT at the end of the sentence. There are words that may be as- sociated with exclamation points, start of quotation (represented by "<<") and end of quotation (">>"). II. THE BASIC COMPONENTS (sumti AND selbri): We now discuss the substructures of the basic components that make up a sen- tence. Any variety of selbri may be placed in a sentence, or another substructure below that mentions 'selbri'. Likewise, any variety of sumti may be placed in a sentence, or another substructure below that mentions 'sumti'. You may see that this can optionally lead to extremely complicated structures nested within one another. Lojban's unambiguous grammar allows even these most complicated structures to be untangled in only one way. A. SIMPLE sumti sumti are not specific as to number (singular or plural), nor gender (masculine/feminine/neutral). Such distinctions can be optionally expressed by being specific. Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 "pronoun" sumti: These include the single-word sumti given above: mi I/we do you ti this/these ta that/those tu that/those-yonder zo'e something unspecified (it's either obvious or unimportant) Some other words in this category include: ri he/she/it (the-last-referenced-sumti) ko imperative you ko'a it/he/she/they (a specific value) di'u it/this (the last sentence) There are many others, each with a particular meaning. For example, there are 9 other words related to "ko'a". Each may be used to represent a sepa- rate value of "it". Since Lojban has no gender or number, these 10 words represent "he", "she", and "they" as well, and it becomes more clear why so many are needed. "zo'e" is a place-filler allowing you to skip over a sumti place in the or- dered place structure without specifying a value. The speaker indicates that there is a value, but that it is not important to specify it, or that the speaker thinks it is obvious given the context. do [cu] tavla zo'e ti [vau] -- ===== ---- -- You talk about this. You talk about this. (to someone, in some language) "ri" is a quick back-reference sumti. It may have a new ad-hoc meaning ev- ery time it occurs. The rules for counting back to 'the last sumti' in- clude some special cases that can't be covered in this summary, but in most simple sentences, the referent will be obvious. There are two other back- referencing sumti of this type. mi [cu] tavla fi la lojban. ri [vau] -- ===== .> ---------- -- I talk x3=about-Lojban in-it(Lojban)-x4. I talk about Lojban in Lojban (to someone unspecified.) "ko" is used to express commands. A statement with "ko" can be interpreted by replacing the "ko" with "do", and then taking the result as a command to the listener to make the sentence true for himself/herself as "do": ko [cu] tavla mi [vau] -- ===== -- You (imp.) talk to-me. Talk to me! is the command equivalent of: do [cu] tavla mi [vau] -- ===== -- You talk to-me. You talk to me. "ko" need not be in the first position, but rather can occur anywhere a sumti is allowed, leading to possible Lojban commands that are very unlike English commands: mi [cu] tavla ko [vau] -- ===== -- I talk to-you (imperative). Let me talk (to you)! "ko" is even permitted to occur in more than one place in a sentence, al- lowing for meaning-rich commands like: ko [cu] tavla ko [vau] -- ===== -- You (imp.) talk to-you (imperative). Talk to yourself! The English misses some of the meaning, since the Lojban expresses two com- mands at once: that the listener talk to himself, but also that the lis- tener allow himself to be talked-to (by himself). Names ("la name"): Lojban names always end with a consonant followed by a mandatory pause (which may be very short). No other Lojban word ends with a consonant. Thus names are easily recognized by both their form, and by being marked with "la". do [cu] tavla la .an. ti [vau] -- ======= ------- -- You talk-to Ann about this. You talk to Ann about this. question sumti ("ma"): "ma" indicates a question about the value of a sumti. It is answered by 'filling in the blank', replacing the "ma" with the intended sumti value. It can be translated as "Who?" or "What?" in most cases, but also serves for "When?", "Where?", and "Why? when used in sumti places that express time, location, or cause. ma [cu] tavla do [vau] -- ===== -- __? talks to-you. What/Who talks to you? is answerable by: mi [cu] tavla do [vau] -- ===== -- I talk to you. Like "ko", "ma" can occur in any position where a sumti is allowed, not just in the first position.: do [cu] tavla ma [vau] -- ===== -- You talk to what/whom? "ma" can also appear in multiple sumti positions in one sentence, in effect asking several questions at once. ma [cu] tavla ma [vau] -- ===== -- What/Who talks to what/whom? The two separate "ma" positions ask two separate questions, and can there- fore be answered with different values in each sumti place. Description sumti ("le selbri [ku]"): "le" describes a sumti that the speaker has in mind by describing a bridi relationship that it forms the first (x1) sumti of. This bridi is repre- sented by a selbri (e.g., one of the words described earlier in this pa- per). Description sumti phrases have a terminator on the right side, "ku", which is omitted when no ambiguity results. mi [cu] tavla le vecnu [ku] le blari'o [ku] [vau] -- ===== ------------- --------------- I talk-to the seller about the blue-green-thing. "le vecnu" takes the selbri "vecnu", which has the "seller" in the x1 place, and uses it in this sentence to describe a particular "seller" that the speaker has in mind (one that she probably expects the listener will also know about). Similarly, the speaker has a particular blue-green thing in mind, which is described using "le" to mark "blari'o", a selbri whose first sumti is something blue-green. There are many variations on "le sumti [ku]" constructs, but to discuss them, we must first discuss the more complex structures of selbri. B. selbri STRUCTURE Though Lojban sentences often translate word-for-word into fairly clear En- glish, selbri relations are actually quite unlike English. The selbri "bajra" expresses a relation of running. sumti bajra sumti sumti sumti ----- ===== ----- ----- ----- runner [running] on-surface using-limbs with-gait In some sentence positions, "bajra" might be interpreted as the 'verb' "to run"; in other positions, "running". In "le sumti [ku]", described in the preceding section, it represents the 'noun' interpretation of its x1 sumti place: "runner". (Some English words, like "cook", have similar proper- ties, but the analogy is weak.) brivla: The simplest form of selbri is an individual word. A word which may by it- self express a selbri relation is called a brivla. The three types of brivla are gismu (root words), lujvo (compounds), and le'avla (borrowings from other languages). All have identical grammar; they are allowed wher- ever "selbri" appear in these examples. gismu: mi [cu] klama ti zo'e zo'e ta [vau] -- ===== -- ---- ---- -- Go-er goes destination origin route means. I go here (to this) using that means. (from somewhere via some route). lujvo: ta [cu] blari'o [vau] -- ======= That is-blue-green. le'avla: ti [cu] djarspageti [vau] -- =========== This is-spaghetti. Some short words may serve as selbri, acting as variables that stand for another selbri. The most commonly used of these is "go'i", which repre- sents the main bridi of the previous Lojban sentence, with any new sumti or other sentence features being expressed replacing the previously expressed ones. Thus, in this context: ta [cu] go'i [vau] -- ==== That too/same-as-last selbri. That (is spaghetti), too. The word "go'i", by itself, by repeating a bridi marked as a "xu" true/false question, repeats that bridi, thereby claiming it is true. Thus, in this sense only, "go'i" can mean "yes". "xu" questions can also be answered "yes" by repeating the entire sentence in full, but "go'i" is much easier to say. xu ta [cu] blari'o [vau] -- ======= Is-it-true-that that is-blue-green? go'i [vau] ==== True. (repeats "That is blue green.") contradictory negation ("na selbri"): The negation particle "na" can occur at the beginning of any selbri. It says that the relation claimed by the selbri does not hold (contradictory negation). It may often be translated as "It is false that [English sen- tence]". mi [cu] na klama ti ta [vau] -- nn>===== -- -- It is false that I go to this from that. The "na" is only permitted at the beginning of a complete selbri. It is considered part of the selbri in other constructs in the language, but is restricted from other positions within a tanru (discussed below). If the contradictory negation particle na precedes "go'i", the combination "na go'i" denies the relation claimed by "go'i". Thus, after a "xu" true/false question, "na go'i" expresses the answer "False", or "No". mi [cu] ja'a go'i [vau] -- pppp>==== It is TRUE that I do (go to this from that). If you were to use "go'i" after a sentence that contained a "na" contradic- tory negation, the negation would carry over to the repeated sentence. Un- like English, "na go'i" would NOT form a double negative; it merely re- places the "na" by another "na" leaving the sentence unchanged. Instead, you must cancel a negative by using the positive equivalent of "na" ("ja'a") to replace the previous sentence "na": scalar negation ("na'e-word brivla"): "na" deals primarily with the truth or falsity of a bridi. Lojban also supports a separate form of negation, called contrary or scalar negation. A scalar negation attaches tightly to the next brivla of the selbri, modi- fying the meaning of the word on some scale. Scalar negation structures may appear anywhere where 'brivla' or 'selbri' is allowed. Scalar negation words include "na'e" (other-than), "to'e" (absolute opposite-of), and "no'e" (neutral on the scale); "je'a" is a strong positive scale assertion, translating roughly as "certainly" or "indeed": |----------- POSITIVE ------------|------------ NEGATIVE -----------| je'a no'e na'e to'e Examples: mi [cu] melbi [vau] -- ===== I am beautiful. mi [cu] na'e melbi [vau] -- ========== I am other-than beautiful. mi [cu] to'e melbi [vau] -- ========== I am ugly/opposite-of-beautiful. mi [cu] no'e melbi [vau] -- ========== I am plain/neutral on the beauty-ugliness scale. mi [cu] je'a melbi [vau] -- ========== I am indeed beautiful. question selbri ("mo"): "mo", like its sumti relative "ma", is a fill-in-the-blank question. It asks the respondent to provide a selbri that would be a true relation if inserted in place of the "mo": do [cu] mo [vau] -- == You are-what/do-what? "mo" may be used ANYWHERE a brivla or other selbri might. Keep this in mind for later examples. Unfortunately, by itself, "mo" is a very non-spe- cific question. The response to the above question could be: mi [cu] melbi [vau] -- ===== I am beautiful. or: mi [cu] tavla [vau] -- ===== I talk. Clearly, "mo" requires some cooperation between the speaker and the respon- dent to ensure that the right question is being answered. If context doesn't make the question specific enough, the speaker must ask the ques- tion more specifically using a more complex construction such as tanru (below). It is perfectly permissible for the respondent to fill in other unspecified places in responding to a "mo" question. Thus, the respondent in the last example could have also specified an audience, a topic, and/or a language in the response. Conversion ("se-word brivla"): "se" and others in its word-category modify a brivla used in a selbri by changing the order of the sumti that are attached, resulting a new selbri that expresses the same relation, but with different order of emphasis. "se" exchanges the first and second sumti places of the unmodified brivla. This reversal is called conversion. The bridi sentence: do [cu] vecnu ta mi zo'e [vau] -- ===== ---- -- ---- seller-x1 sells thing-sold-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 You sell that to me. can be converted to: ta [cu] se vecnu do mi zo'e [vau] -- ======== -- -- ---- thing sold-x1 is-sold-by seller-x2 buyer-x3 price-x4 That is sold by you to me. The effect is similar to what in English is called 'passive voice'. In Lojban, however, a conversion is NOT 'passive': the converted selbri has a place structure that is renumbered to reflect the place reversal, thus having effects when such a conversion is used in combination with other constructs (such as "fi" and "le selbri [ku]"). Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 The other simple relatives of "se" are "te" (switches 1st and 3rd places), "ve" (switches 1st and 4th places), and "xe" (switches 1st and 5th places). The effects may be seen on the 5-place gismu selbri "klama": GO-ER goes to destination from origin via route using means ----- ===== -------------- ----------- --------- ----------- x1 klama x2 x3 x4 x5 DESTINATION is-gone-to BY GO-ER from origin via route using means ----------- ========== -------- ----------- --------- ----------- x1 se klama x2 x3 x4 x5 ORIGIN is-gone-from to destination BY GO-ER via route using means ------ ============ -------------- -------- --------- ----------- x1 te klama x2 x3 x4 x5 ROUTE is-gone-via to destination from origin BY GO-ER using means ----- =========== -------------- ----------- -------- ----------- x1 ve klama x2 x3 x4 x5 MEANS is-used-to-go to destination from origin via route BY GO-ER ----- ============= -------------- ----------- --------- -------- x1 xe klama x2 x3 x4 x5 tanru ("modifier-selbri modified-selbri"): tanru are compound selbri - constructions of multiple brivla/selbri com- ponents. Each component might be a single word, or it might be a word modified by "se", or scalar negations (like "na'e"). tanru take selbri components (including other tanru) in pairs, with the first part modifying the second part. The kind of modification is vague: tanru may act like an English ad- jective-noun (fast-runner), adverb/verb (quickly-run) or it may restrict a larger set (runner-shoes). Context will generally indicate what is a plausible interpretation of a tanru. But allow for creative interpreta- tion: "runner-shoes" might be interpreted in some imaginative instances as "shoes that run by themselves". In general, however, the meaning of a tanru is determined by the literal meaning of its components, and not by any connotations or figurative meanings (sutra tavla - "fast-talker" thus would not necessarily imply any trickery or deception, and a "jikca toldi" - "social butterfly" must always an insect with large brightly-colored wings, of the family lepidoptera). The place structure of a tanru is always that of the final brivla/component of the tanru. Thus, the following has the place structure of "klama": mi [cu] sutra klama la meris. [vau] -- =========== --------- I quickly-go to Mary. With the conversion "se klama" in the final position, the place structure is that of "se klama": the x1 place is the destination, and the x2 place is the go-er: mi [cu] sutra se klama la meris. [vau] -- ============== --------- I quickly am-gone-to by Mary. A similar example shows that there is more to conversion than merely switching places, though: la tam. [cu] melbi tavla la meris. [vau] ------- =========== --------- Tom beautifully-talks to Mary. or Tom is a beautiful-talker to Mary. has the place structure of "tavla", but note the two distinct inter- pretations. Now, using conversion, we can modify the place structure order: la meris. [cu] melbi se tavla la tam. [vau] --------- ============== ------- Mary is beautifully-talked-to by Tom. or Mary is a beautiful-audience for Tom. and we see that the modification has been changed so as to focus on Mary's role in the bridi relationship, leading to a different set of possible interpretations. Note that there is no place structure change if the modifying term is converted, and hence less drastic variation in possible meanings: la tam. [cu] tavla melbi la meris. [vau] ------- =========== --------- Tom is talkerly-beautiful to Mary. la tam. [cu] se tavla melbi la meris. [vau] ------- ============== --------- Tom is audiencely-beautiful to Mary. and we see that the manner in which Tom is seen as beautiful by Mary changes, but Tom is still the one perceived as beautiful, and Mary, the observer of beauty. Any selbri form can be used in either position of a tanru. This allows more specific "mo" questions: do [cu] mo tavla mi [vau] -- ======== -- You are _____(what?)-kind-of talker to me? do [cu] tavla mo mi [vau] -- ======== -- You are talker-ly _____(what?) to me? It was stated above that you can use scalar negation ("na'e" and its equivalents) in tanru: do [cu] na'e sutra tavla [vau] -- ================ You are an other-than-quick talker. (or) You are a slow talker. do [cu] sutra na'e tavla [vau] -- ================ You are quickly other-than-talking. (or) You are doing something other-than-talking, quickly. quantified selbri ("number moi"): Lojban numbers are expressed as strings of digits. The basic digits are: pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so no pi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 . number moi (usually seen combined into one word) (ordinal numbers): le tavla [ku] cu ci moi [vau] ------------- ====== The talker is third. number mei (usually seen combined into one word) (cardinal numbers): le tavla [ku] cu ci mei [vau] ------------- ====== The talkers are a-threesome. number si'e (usually seen combined into one word) (portional numbers): le blari'o [ku] cu pimu si'e [vau] --------------- ========= The blue-green (things) are a .5 portion (a half). number cu'o (usually seen combined into one word) (probability numbers): le blari'o [ku] cu pimu cu'o [vau] --------------- ========= The blue-green (occurrences) are a .5 probability (a half). Note the interpretation of x1 in the last example, which is a result of the place structure of probability numbers. Each of these special kinds of selbri have other places besides the x1 sumti that appear in these examples. number selbri may also be used as part of a tanru: mi [cu] papa moi tavla do [vau] -- ============== -- I am the 11th talker to you. The place structure again is that of the final component of the tanru. Attaching internal sumti to a selbri: Each component of a tanru is not merely a single-word brivla, but a rep- resentation of an entire bridi relationship. Lojban grammar allows the sumti that complete and define that bridi to be combined into the selbri. Combined sumti are called internal sumti. We'll first show the structure of such a complex selbri component: brivla/selbri be sumti [bei sumti][bei sumti] ... [bei sumti] [be'o] where the sumti attached with "be" is normally x2, and other sumti are optionally attached in numerical order (x3, x4, x5), each preceded by the marker "bei". "be'o" is the end-marker for internal sumti, appearing after the last internal sumti for a brivla or other selbri. Let's now look at one way that this construct is used. tanru with internal sumti: Using the internal sumti structure, any of the components of a tanru can have its own sumti: ta [cu] tavla be do bei le melbi ku [be'o] vecnu [vau] -- | | --| | ----------- | | ----- ----------------------| ==================================== That is a talker-to-you-about-the-beautiful-thing(s) salesperson. (or, more simply) That's a salesperson who talks to you about beautiful things. In compound constructs such as this one, the normally optional elidable [omissible] right terminators may be mandatory to keep the sentence un- ambiguous. Thus, in this last example, either the "ku" or the "be'o" must not be elided ["ku" was chosen arbitrarily]. Otherwise, "vecnu" is absorbed into the internal sumti: ta [cu] tavla be do bei le melbi vecnu [ku] [be'o] [vau] -- | | --| | ------------------- | | ----- ------------------------------| ============================================ That is a talker-to-you-about-the-beautiful-salesperson. (or) That one talks about beautiful salespeople to you. Obviously, a different statement. In Lojban, you MUST be careful about properly including terminators when needed. If in doubt, include the terminator; the statement CANNOT be ambiguous with the terminator present. In the last example, by omitting the elidable terminators "ku" and "be'o", we ended up with sumti attached to the selbri word in final position. The latter sentence is thus identical in meaning to the same sentence expressed without internal sumti: ta [cu] tavla do le melbi vecnu [ku] [vau] -- ===== -- ------------------- That is a talker-to-you-about-the-beautiful-salesperson. (or) That one talks about beautiful salespeople to you. Internal sumti can use any sumti construct, including the fa/fe/fi/fo/fu series to rearrange place orders: ta [cu] tavla be do bei fo la lojban. [be'o] vecnu [vau] -- | | --| | ------------- | | ----- ------------------------| ====================================== That is a talker-to-you-in-Lojban salesperson. (or, more simply) That's a salesperson who talks to you in Lojban. tanru inversion ("modified-selbri co modifier-selbri") We rephrased the English translations of the Lojban in the last two ex- amples in order to simplify the English structure and make the sentence more clear. The same type of rearrangement is possible in Lojban. The technique is called tanru inversion. The modifier selbri is placed AFTER the modified one, with a "co" separating them: modified-selbri co modifier-selbri The "co" can often be translated as "of type". tanru inversion affects the interpretation of sumti that are in the sur- rounding bridi relationship in a peculiar manner. The inversion causes a new brivla to be in the final position, and any following sumti are interpreted as being associated with that final brivla of the modifier- selbri. The sumti PRECEDING the selbri still are associated with the final term of the modified-selbri, because that is the most essential relation that is being claimed by the sentence. One obvious advantage of tanru inversion is to simplify the apparent structure of a selbri. As we have said, the selbri in the final position does not need to use internal sumti structures to attach its sumti. The first of the examples above that use internal sumti becomes the simpler: ta [cu] vecnu co tavla do le melbi [ku] [vau] -- ============== -- ------------- That is a seller of-type talker to you about the beautiful thing(s). (or) That's a salesperson who talks to you about beautiful things. "do" and "le melbi [ku]" are the x2 and x3 places of "tavla", while "ta" remains the x1 of the underlying modified-relation, which is "vecnu". The resulting Lojban now matches the colloquial English phrasing more closely, and the sentence is simpler since it does not require the complex marker system needed for internal sumti within the selbri. All of the forms of selbri listed in this section are governed by rules that form a hierarchy. The most complex constructs are those using rules higher in the hierarchy. In general, constructs built from higher rules cannot be used inside lower-rule constructs. This hierarchy of rules is the primary reason why Lojban's grammar is unambiguous. Inversion of tanru uses rules which are highest in the hierarchy, thus allowing you to invert almost all other selbri constructs. However, this means that you also CANNOT substitute a tanru inversion into very many other constructs within a selbri. selbri grouping in tanru: tanru may be composed of more than two components, any of which may be more complex than the simple brivla and/or other selbri structures discussed above. Lojban allows complex tanru structures to be unambiguously expressed, so that any such complex structure can be broken down into a series of modifier-modified pairs. We present two of the variety of ways to express more complex groupings. Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 In the absence of any grouping indications, components in tanru are pre- sumed grouped from the left: ti [cu] cmalu nanla ckule [vau] -- ================= This is-a small-boys school. (This is a school for small boys.) But what if we want to group this selbri so as to talk about a "boys school" which is small. One way is with tanru inversion: ti [cu] nanla ckule co cmalu [vau] -- ==================== This is-a boys school of-type small. (This is a boys school which is small.) tanru inversion can work for many simple grouping problems. However, since it changes the final brivla, it affects the interpretation of any sumti following the selbri. There is a more general solution that does not affect which selbri is in final position, a choice that might be important because of the structural markers required. Any selbri, or any portion of a tanru that could stand alone as a selbri, may be surrounded with word-brackets "ke" (left) and "ke'e" (right) to indicate priority in grouping. Normally, you will only use ke/ke'e grouping around strings of two or more selbri components, since the structure conveys no useful information around a single component. At the end of the selbri and in other places where no ambiguity results, the "ke'e" terminator becomes optional (elidable): ti [cu] cmalu ke nanla ckule [ke'e] [vau] -- =========================== This is-a small boys-school. A selbri structure surrounded by "ke" and "ke'e" has the same grammar as a single word brivla. As a result, you can modify such structures with "na'e" and other scalar negation words, or with "se" and other conversion words: ti [cu] cmalu na'e ke nanla ckule [ke'e] [vau] -- ================================ This is-a small other-than-(boys-school). abstraction selbri: The final selbri form we will cover in this paper isn't found very often in selbri in its most basic form. However, it turns out to be one of the most important constructs in the language, showing up frequently as a part of more complex structures. This selbri form is called sentence abstraction. The basic form is: nu-word complete-bridi-sentence [kei] where the bridi sentence inside the two markers can be a Lojban sentence of ANY type discussed in this paper, no matter how complex. The word "nu" indicates an event abstraction, the most common kind of abstraction found in Lojban. ti [cu] nu mi [cu] tavla do [vau] [kei] [vau] -- | -- ===== -- | | talker talks to-audience | | I talk to you. | -------- =========================================== event-x1 event-of "I talk to you." This is an event of my talking to you. The term 'event' should not be misconstrued. In Lojban, it can refer to a momentary occurrence, or to a situation lasting hours, days, or even an indefinite period of time. "nu" can stand for any of these kinds and dura- tions of events. Other words may substitute for "nu" when you need to be specific and indicate particular event contours, such as a point event in time (mu'e) or a steady, unchanging state (za'i) of indefinite duration. There are other types of abstractions, as well, each indicated by words that substitute for "nu". The most common of these are "ka" for a prop- erty/quality abstraction and "du'u" for a fact/assertion abstraction. These will be exemplified in the next section. Most abstraction selbri have only one place (x1) which is the event, property, fact or other ab- stract 'thing' being described by the selbri. Abstractions, like other selbri, may be used in tanru; indeed, they are more common in tanru than alone: ti [cu] sutra bajra cukta [vau] -- ================= This is-a fast-runner book. which might be a book about fast runners, while: ti [cu] sutra nu bajra kei cukta [vau] -- ======================== This is-a fast-event(s)-of-running book. which is more likely a book about races, or a how-to book about running fast. Note that the "kei" could not be elided in the last example, or the following would have resulted: ti [cu] sutra nu bajra cukta [kei] [vau] -- ==================== This is-a fast event-of runner-book. and one imagines a very short-lived book about runners (it is the event that is fast, not the running or the book). Most abstractions that appear often in selbri like this, tend to be ab- breviated into a single-word selbri (a brivla) which embeds the "nu" into the concept. Such compounds don't require a "kei", since the abstraction encompasses only the idea expressed within the word. Lojban compound words (lujvo) are composed of combining forms of their component brivla (content words like "bajra") and cmavo (short structure words like "nu"). The rules for constructing lujvo are not difficult if you have a list of the combining forms (called rafsi); the rules are designed carefully to ensure that the pieces stay attached together and cannot be accidentally interpreted as separate words, since (as in the last example) the grammar of separate words may require added markers and terminators to obtain the meaning that you intend. The lujvo for an event of running is formed from "nun", the rafsi combining form of "nu", and "bajra", which serves as its own combining form: sumti nunbajra sumti sumti sumti sumti ----- ======== ----- ----- ----- ----- event [running] runner on-surface using-limbs with-gait x1 is an event of x2 running on surface x3 using limbs x4, with gait x5 Comparing this place structure with the one at the beginning of this section, you will see that x1 has been assigned to the event, while the remaining places are those of "bajra". With this new lujvo, the next to the last example sentence: ti [cu] sutra nu bajra kei cukta [vau] -- ======================== This is-a fast-events-of-running book. can use less-complicated structure: ti [cu] sutra nunbajra cukta [vau] -- ==================== This is-a fast-(events-of-running) book. III. COMPLEX sumti More "le selbri [ku]" descriptions: Now that we have seen a variety of selbri forms, it perhaps becomes obvious that any of these selbri structures can be used in description sumti marked with "le". Indeed, some of these structures, especially internal sumti and abstractions, are much more commonly found embedded in sumti, than in the selbri that defines the main relation of the sentence. ko [cu] tavla le sutra klama [ku] [vau] -- ===== ------------------- You (imperative) talk to the quick-goer. (Talk to the quick-goer.) do [cu] klama le se tavla [ku] ta [vau] -- ===== ---------------- -- You go to the one-talked-to from that. This last example shows the virtue of "se" conversion. It has allowed us to mentally convert "tavla" to make its x2 place accessible by description in the sumti. Now for a tricky usage. We use "go'i" to refer to the bridi of the last sentence. Therefore "le go'i [ku]" refers to the first place of that bridi (in this case, the go-er "do"). If we want to refer to the second place of the last sentence bridi, the destination, we can mentally convert that sentence using "se", and "le se go'i [ku]" means the destination ("le se tavla [ku]"). le se go'i [ku] cu melbi [vau] --------------- ===== The destination is beautiful. (or) The one talked-to (the destination) is beautiful. le na'e melbi [ku] cu tavla [vau] ------------------ ===== The other-than-beautiful one talks. mi [cu] tavla le mo klama [ku] ri [vau] -- ===== ---------------- -- I talk to the what-kind-of go-er about itself? le re moi prenu [ku] cu tavla mi [vau] -------------------- ===== -- The second person talks to me. It is IMPORTANT to remember and correctly use the elidable separator "cu" with description selbri. If you misplace it or omit it (and its less-often used alternative "ku"), you will create some very strange tanru. le sutra [ku] cu vecnu cukta [vau] ------------- =========== The quick-one is a seller book. le sutra vecnu [ku] cu cukta [vau] ------------------- ===== The quick seller is a book. And, if you omit the "cu", you get only a sumti: le sutra vecnu cukta [ku] [vau] ------------------------- The quick-seller book. sumti descriptions with internal sumti: le selbri be sumti bei sumti bei sumti ... bei sumti [be'o] [ku] | |-------------------------------------------------| | ---------------------------------------------------------------- is all one sumti. le tavla be la .an. bei le vecnu [ku] [be'o] [ku] cu klama [vau] | | ------- ------------- | | ===== | ----------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------- The talker to Ann about the seller goes. You can even fill in the places of an internal sumti: le tavla be le melbi be la .an. [be'o] [ku] [be'o] [ku] cu klama [vau] | | | | ------- | | | | ===== | | | ----------------- | | | | | ------------------------------ | | | ----------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------ The talker to the one who is beautiful to Ann goes.. (The one talking to the one Ann thinks is beautiful, goes.) Without the omitted terminators this looks a bit less wordy: le tavla be le melbi be la .an. cu klama The one talking to the one Ann thinks is beautiful, goes. Since a selbri can be a tanru with internal sumti, a sumti may be built on such a selbri, possibly even having internal sumti on BOTH components of a tanru (in a tanru embedded in a sumti, even the sumti attached to the final component must be attached with be/bei/be'o).: le melbi be la .an. [be'o] tavla be la mark. [be'o] [ku] cu vecnu ti | | -------- | | -------- | | ===== -- | ----------------- ------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------- The beautiful-to-Ann talker-to-Mark sells this. (The one Ann thinks is beautiful who is talking to Mark, sells this. Here, either the "ku" or the "cu" is elidable before the main selbri (both "be'o"s are unconditionally elidable). Most frequently, when there is a choice, the terminator that best communicates the sentence structure is chosen. "cu", in this case, clearly separates the complex sumti from the selbri, and is preferred. Often, a single "cu" may allow you to omit several elidable terminators that would otherwise be necessary. This happens most frequently with abstraction selbri that are used in sumti descriptions. abstraction sumti clauses: le nu sentence kei: mi [cu] djica le nu mi [cu] klama le zarci [ku] [vau] [kei] [ku] [vau] -- ===== | | -- ===== ------------- | | | ========================================== | ------------------------------------------------- I want the-event-of: I go to the store. I want to go to the store. With the omitted terminators not printed, this sentence looks much shorter: mi djica le nu mi klama le zarci I want to go to the store. An even shorter form will typically appear in Lojban text. "le nu" occurs so frequently in combination that it is often written as a single word; this isn't mandatory - cmavo compounds are always understood as meaning the same thing as the words written separately. cmavo are generally written one word when they together equate to a concept that is written in other languages as one word. In addition, the "mi" inside the abstraction will often be omitted. When a listener hears this sentence and realizes that the go-er wasn't specified (as well as the origin, the route and the means), the obvious value(s) will be assumed. Leaving out the "mi" is exactly comparable to the difference between the two English sentences: I want to go to the store. (and) I want myself to go to the store. mi djica lenu klama le zarci I want to go to the store. Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 If an abstraction is in the x1 position, "cu" allows four other elidable markers to be omitted. For example in a conversion of the last example sentence: lenu mi [cu] klama le zarci [ku] [vau] [kei] [ku] cu se djica mi [vau] | | -- ===== ------------- | | ======== -- | ========================================= | ------------------------------------------------ The-event-of: (I go to the store) is desirable to me. the "cu" allows four other markers to be omitted. Using "cu" is much easier for the listener, who thus knows in one word that the complex sumti is completely ended and the main selbri comes next. We promised to give examples of two of the other types of abstractions in this section. These abstractions tend to be associated with specific places of particular brivla. la mark. [cu] ricfu le ka melbi [vau] [kei] [ku] [vau] -------- ===== ---------------------------- Mark is rich in the quality of x1 being beautiful to x2 by standard x3 mi [cu] djuno le du'u la djan. [cu] te vecnu [vau] [kei] [ku] [vau] -- ===== ----------------------------------------------- I know the-fact-that John is a buyer. I know that John buys (something). As with the earlier examples. these sentences will typically appear much shorter in print: la mark. ricfu leka melbi Mark is rich in beauty. mi djuno ledu'u la djan. te vecnu I know that John buys (something). Quantified sumti ("le number [boi] selbri [ku]"): One way to quantify a sumti being described is to insert the number fol- lowed by a terminator "boi" that may be omitted when no ambiguity results (the usual case): le re [boi] tavla [ku] cu klama [vau] ---------------------- ===== The two talkers go. "boi" may not be elided when a number selbri follows, since you wouldn't know where one number stops and the next begins. (Lojban does not allow such boundaries to be expressed by contrastive stress as in English.): le reno boi remei [ku] cu klama [vau] ---------------------- ===== The twenty twosomes go. Quantified selection from sumti ("number [boi] le [number] [boi] selbri [ku]"): You can also put a number preceding the "le", to select from the set in- dicated by the description: re [boi] le tavla [ku] cu klama [vau] .......> ------------- ===== Two of the (unspecified number of) talkers go. re [boi] le reno boi remei [ku] cu klama [vau] .......> ---------------------- ===== Two of the twenty twosomes go. (i.e. four altogether) le tavla be pa [boi] le ci [boi] bajra [ku] [be'o] [ku] cu melbi [vau] | | .......> ---------------------- | | ===== | ----------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------ The talker to one-of the three runners is-beautiful. Indefinite description sumti ("lo selbri [ku]") If you wish to describe a sumti, but do not have a specific in mind, you can instead refer generically to something that meets the terms of the description selbri: lo tavla [ku] cu klama [vau] ------------- ===== A talker goes. (or) Some talkers go. "lo" may be used interchangeably with "le" in the preceding examples, with an indefinite description as a result. Lojban allows you to omit the "lo" in: number [boi] [lo] [number] [boi] selbri [ku] re [boi] tavla [ku] cu klama [vau] ------------------- ===== re tavla cu klama Two [of the unspecified number who are] talkers go. "di'u" and "la'e di'u": In English, I might say "The school is beautiful", and you might reply "This pleases me." How do you know what "this" refers to? Lojban uses different expressions to convey the possible meanings of the English: le ckule [ku] cu melbi [vau] ------------- ===== The school is beautiful. The following three sentences all might translate as "This pleases me." ri [cu] pluka mi [vau] -- ===== -- This (the school, the last expressed sumti) pleases me. di'u [cu] pluka mi [vau] ---- ===== -- This (the last sentence) pleases me (perhaps because it is grammatical or sounds nice). la'e di'u [cu] pluka mi [vau] --------- ===== This (the referent of the last sentence; i.e. that the school is beautiful) pleases me. The last sentence is an example of using one sumti to point to or refer to another by inference. "la'edi'u" is often written as a single word, and is used more often than "di'u" by itself. Other sumti types: Lojban supports several other sumti types, more than we can discuss in a short paper. These include bare numbers, several kinds of quoted text (single words, grammatical or possibly ungrammatical text, and non-Lojban text). IV. ATTACHMENTS TO sumti AND selbri AND sentences A. ATTACHMENTS TO sumti All structures in this section apply to sumti at the main level of a sentence, as well as to sumti within substructures. Adding a new sumti place to a bridi relationship ("modal + sumti"): time or location: e.g. "pu"/before, "ba"/after, "ca"/simultaneous with, "vi"/at, "va"/near, "vu"/far from There are many more of these, and some specialized rules for compounding them. These are discussed in a more advanced paper. mi [cu] tavla pu le nu do [cu] tavla [vau] [kei] [ku] [vau] -- ===== .> ------------------------------------ mi tavla pu lenu do tavla I talk before the-act-of you talk. (I talk before you do.) You must think carefully about what you mean with these constructions: mi [cu] tavla pu do [vau] -- ===== .> -- I talk before you. (I talked before "you" even existed.) modal tag: e.g. "secau" (without ...), "mu'i" (motivational because ...), "du'o" (according to ...) do [cu] klama secau mi [vau] -- ===== ....> -- You go without me. modal questions ("modal + ma"): Express common English questions using time, location, and modal tag words combined with "ma": ca ma do [cu] tavla [vau] -- ===== Simultaneous-with ____(what?), you talk? (When do you talk?) vi ma do [cu] tavla [vau] -- ===== At ____(what?), you talk? (Where do you talk?) mu'i ma do [cu] tavla [vau] -- ===== Motivationally because ____(what?), you talk? (Why do you talk?) (Lojban has other "because" modal tags for asking a variety of different "why?" questions.) sumti relative phrases ("sumti pe modifier-sumti [ge'u]"): A sumti may be identified more exactly by attaching a relative phrase, another sumti, that in some way restricts the possible set of things being referred to: le cukta [ku] pe le vecnu [ku] [ge'u] cu blari'o [vau] ------------- < ------------- | ======= <...................... The book of the salesperson is blue-green. "pe", the basic marker of a restrictive relative phrase, is vague as to the exact nature of the relationship between the original sumti and the sumti that is identifying. It is thus similar to the loosest English possessive, as in "my chair/the chair of mine", which may be used for a chair that you sit in but which is owned by someone else. Successively tighter degrees of association/possession are indicated by "po" (alienable possession) and "po'e" (inalienable possession): le cukta [ku] po mi [ge'u] ------------- < -- | The book of mine. (Even if you are holding it, it is still my book. But I also could give it to you such that it is no longer my book.) le birka [ku] po'e mi [ge'u] ------------- < -- | The arm of mine (It is still MY arm; it cannot be given away.) "po'u" identifies a sumti by giving another IDENTITY: a sumti that could equivalently replace the original: la djan. po'u le vecnu [ku] [ge'u] cu klama [vau] -------- < ------------- | ===== John who-is the seller goes. John-the-saleman goes. "goi", used like "pe", defines "ko'a" and other variable sumti for use throughout a text without repeating: le melbi tavla [ku] goi ko'a [ge'u] [cu] vecnu [vau] ------------------- < ---- | ===== The beautiful talker (hereinafter "ko'a") sells. .i ko'a djica lenu do klama ko'a [vau] [kei] [ku] [vau] ---- ===== ----------------------------------- He/she (the beautiful talker) wants the event of you going to him/her. Lojban has words identical in grammar to "pe" that provide non-restrictive (incidental) information about a sumti. "ne" is the non-restrictive (incidental) equivalent of "pe": This construct may be combined with the modal construct discussed just previously to identify a sumti: la djan. ne pu la mark. [ge'u] [cu] melbi tavla [vau] -------- < >. -------- | =========== John, who was (incidentally) before Mark, is a beautiful-talker. The contrast between "ne" (incidental) and "pe" (identifying) is shown by giving the same sentence with "pe": la djan. pe pu la mark. [ge'u] [cu] melbi tavla [vau] -------- < >. -------- | =========== (The) John who was before Mark is a beautiful-talker. Certain modal tags, in fact, are designed primarily for use in relative phrases, rather than to attach additional sumti structures to the main bridi relationship as described earlier. One of these is "semau" ("more than ..."): la djan. ne semau la mark. [ge'u] [cu] tavla mi [vau] -------- < >.... -------- | ===== -- John, (incidentally) more than Mark, talks to me. (John talks to me more than Mark does.) la djan. [cu] tavla mi ne semau la mark. [ge'u] [vau] -------- ===== -- < >.... -------- | John talks to me, (incidentally) more than Mark. (John talks to me more than he does to Mark.) Without linking a "semau" modal sumti to another sumti with "ne" or "pe", it is hard to understand: ???la djan. [cu] tavla mi semau la mark. [vau] -------- ===== -- >.... -------- John talks to me, more than Mark. (but Mark is tied neither to John nor me, but to the talking). (John's talking to me) is more than (Mark). Comparing a talking relationship to a person is nonsense. sumti relative clauses ("sumti poi sentence ku'o"): "pe" phrases are limited to what can be expressed in a single sumti. When you need to include more complete information about a sumti, Lojban provides for relative clauses. A restrictive relative clause marker, "poi", marks a following complete bridi as providing detailed identifying information about the sumti by providing a relationship that the sumti fits into. The placeholder for the sumti being identified is "ke'a", which is merely another in the set of single-word sumti. "ke'a" is often left out if it is contextually obvious where it would go (especially when "ke'a" would go in the x1 position immediately after "poi", or in the first available unspecified place if that x1 is provided in the clause). A relative clause is terminated with the marker "ku'o" which may be omitted if no ambiguity will result. It is very rare that "ku'o" needs to be expressed. le ckule [ku] poi mi [cu] klama ke'a [vau] [ku'o] cu blari'o [vau] ------------- < -- ===== ---- | ======= <.................................... The school which I go-to it is-blue-green. The school I go to is blue-green.) Note that "ke'a" refers to the school. le bajra [ku] poi [cu] tavla [vau] [ku'o] cu vecnu [vau] ------------- < ===== | ===== <.......................... The runner who talks is a seller. There is also a non-restrictive relative clause marker, "noi", for in- cidental information about a sumti. tensed sumti ("le time/location/modal-tag + selbri [ku]") A sumti may also have a time or location or modal tag in front of a de- scription selbri: le pu bajra [ku] [cu] tavla [vau] ---------------- ===== The earlier/former/past runner talked/talks. (Since Lojban tense is optional, we don't know when.) le vi bajra [ku] [cu] tavla [vau] ---------------- ===== The here runner talks. (This runner talks.) Diagrammed Summary of Lojban Grammar Forms with Example Sentences Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992 - The Logical Language Group, Inc. 2904 Beau Lane Fairfax VA 22031-1303 USA Phone: 703-385-0273 Permission granted to reproduce for no charge to the recipient, for purposes of promotion of Lojban. Updated April 1992 short possessive sumti ("le possessor-sumti selbri [ku]") As a comparison with the last example, note that a description sumti may have a sumti after the "le", resulting in a short form of the loose "pe" possessive. English "this" might be represented by "vi" or by "ti", depending on context. le ti bajra [ku] [cu] tavla [vau] ---------------- ===== The this-one's runner talks. (This one's runner talks.) A more complete structure of a description sumti is "[number] le [number] [sumti] [modal] selbri [ku]". B. ATTACHMENTS TO selbri tensed or adverbial bridi relationships: Immediately after a "cu" before a selbri, you can have a modal (such a modal being there may make a "cu" unnecessary, since modals cannot be absorbed into tanru). Such modals serve as an equivalent to English tenses and adverb functions. In Lojban, tense is completely optional. If unspecified, tense is picked up from context. do [cu] vu vecnu zo'e [vau] -- >. ===== You yonder sell something-unspecified. le vi tavla [ku] [cu] ba klama [vau] ---------------- >. ===== The here talker will go. (This talker will go.) do [cu] mu'i tavla mi [vau] -- >... ===== -- You motivatedly talk to me. C. ATTACHMENTS TO sentences A variety of constructs may occur anywhere in a sentence, operating inde- pendent of the primary grammar of the sentence. These constructs generally have minimal internal grammar. Like "xu", when not at the beginning of a sentence, they indicate emphasis on the word or construct they immediately follow. Indicators: Indicators include a variety of expressions conveyed in English through interjections or tone of voice. Lojban supports a enormous range of emotional expression through specific words and compounds. Indicators may be modified for intensity, or classified by sphere (social, mental, emotional, physical, sexual, spiritual). .ie mi [cu] klama [vau] -- ===== Agreement! I go. (Yep! I'll go.) .ei mi [cu] klama [vau] -- ===== Obligation! I go. (I should go.) mi [cu] klama le ckule .ui [ku] [vau] -- ===== --------( )--- I go to the school (and I am happy because it is the school I'm going to). Discursives: Discursives allow free expression of certain metalinguistic comments (comments about the text). Use of discursives allows clear separation of these metalinguistic features from the underlying statements and logical structure. By comparison, the English words "but" and "also", which discursively indicate contrast or added weight-of-example, are logically equivalent to "and" without that discursive content. The average English speaker does not think about, and may not even realize, the contrary- seeming idea that "but" basically means "and". mi [cu] klama [vau] .i do [cu] stali [vau] -- ===== -- ===== I go. You stay. mi [cu] klama [vau] .i ji'a do [cu] stali [vau] -- ===== -- ===== I go. In addition, you stay. (added weight) mi [cu] klama [vau] .i ku'i do [cu] stali [vau] -- ===== -- ===== I go. However, you stay. (contrast) Evidentials: Evidentials indicate the speaker's relationship to the statement, specifically communicating how the speaker came to make the statement. These include "za'a" (I directly observe the relationship), "pe'i" (I opine that the relationship holds) "ru'a" (I postulate), and others. Many Amerind languages use these type of words. pe'i do [cu] melbi [vau] -- ===== I opine! You are beautiful. za'a do [cu] melbi [vau] -- ===== I directly observe! You are beautiful. Some expressions overlap between categories, having value as indicators as well as evidential import (".ia", belief, faith), or attitudi- nal/metalinguistic import ("ga'i", hauteur, relative high-rank; cf. Japanese). .e'a ga'i ko'a [cu] citka lo titnanba [ku] [vau] ---- ===== ---------------- Permission!/I permit! Hauteur! They eat cake. (Let them eat cake!) V. LOGICAL CONNECTIVES Lojban expresses logical connectives so as to unambiguously indicate logical scope (what is being connected), as well as to isolate various non-logical features from the logical ones (as noted above for discursives). Logical connectives may be expressed in forethought forms (both ... and ...) or afterthought forms (..., and ...). The form of logical connectives directly indicates their scope and the associated truth table for the two connected terms. For example, a bare vowel joins sumti (".a"/alternation, a and/or b, a OR b; ".e"/conjunction, a AND b). "na" and "nai" may be used to negate con- nected terms ("na.a"/conditional, not a OR b, if a then b; "anai"/a or not b, a if b). Parallel structures are shown in the following abbreviated table: sumti sumti forethought sentences OR a and/or b .a ga sumti gi sumti .i ja AND a and b .e ge sumti gi sumti .i je XOR a or b, not both .onai go sumti ginai sumti .i jonai -> if a then b na.a ganai sumti gi sumti .i naja (a only if b) <- a if b .anai ga sumti ginai sumti .i janai tanru tanru forethought compound bridi OR a and/or b ja gu'a sumti gi sumti gi'a AND a and b je gu'e sumti gi sumti gi'e XOR a or b, not both jonai gu'o sumti ginai sumti gi'onai -> if a then b naja gu'anai sumti gi sumti nagi'a (a only if b) <- a if b janai gu'a sumti ginai sumti gi'anai mi [cu] citka ti .a ta [vau] -- ===== --(++)-- I eat this and/or that. mi [cu] citka ti .e ta [vau] -- ===== --(++)-- I eat this and that. mi [cu] citka ti na.a ta [vau] -- ===== --(++++)-- I eat this only if that. mi [cu] citka ti .anai ta [vau] -- ===== --(+++++)-- I eat this if that. ganai mi gi do [cu] klama [vau] +++++)--(++)-- ===== If me, then you, go. mi [cu] klama [vau] .i je do [cu] klama [vau] |-- ===== | |-- ===== | |___________________|(+++++)|___________________| I go AND you go. mi [cu] klama tu [vau] gi'e citka ti [vau] [vau] -- |===== -- | |===== -- | -- |______________|(++++)|______________| I go to that-yonder AND eat this/these. Lojban also supports NON-logical connectives, such as mixed connection and set membership (ordered/un-ordered): mi [cu] citka le blari'o joi pelxu [ku] [vau] -- ===== ----------(+++)---------- I eat the blue-green-mixed-with-yellow (stuff). mi [cu] citka le blari'o ku joi le pelxu [ku] [vau] -- ===== -------------(+++)------------- I eat the blue-green (stuff) mixed-with the yellow (stuff). (The "ku" before the "joi" in the latter example CANNOT be left out due to the ambiguity resolution rules.) VI. VERY BRIEF PRONUNCIATION GUIDE (covers only features occurring in these examples) Vowels a as in father, never as in sofa e as in bet i s in machine o as in cocoa u as in flute Vowel pairs without apostrophes ai as /igh/ in "high" au as /ow/ in "cow" ei as in "weight" ia as the German "Ja" ie as /ye/ in "yep" oi as /oy/ in "toy" ui as the word "we" Consonants as in English except c sh as in "shoe" j z as in "azure" x hard ch of Scottish "loch" (breathe through a 'k') g always hard, as in "go", NOT as in "germ" s always as in "floss", NOT as in "flows" A period indicates a mandatory pause, which may be very short. An apostrophe (') between vowels splits them into 2 syllables with no sound from your vocal cords (usually like a brief 'h' sound) between. There must be no pause, and no 'voiced' sound: "e'o" should be a smooth transition from "e" to "o" that doesn't sound like /ayo/ of "mayo". Stress longer words (brivla) penultimately (the next to the last syllable). klama /KLAH,mah/ blari'o /blah,REE,ho/ VII. BRIEF GLOSSARY OF LOJBAN WORDS USED IN THESE EXAMPLES .a and/or: sumti ma sumti question .anai only if: sumti mei cardinal # selbri ba after/future time mi I; me; we; us be internal sumti link mo selbri question be'o end internal sumti moi ordinal # selbri bei more internal sumti mu 5 bi 8 mu'e abstract.: point event boi end-of-number mu'i modal: motiv. cause ca same time/present na contradict. negation ci 3 na'e scalar other-than co tanru inversion na.a only if: sumti cu selbri separator nago'i last bridi false; No! cu'o probability selbri ne incidental rel. phrase di'u last sentence ni'o new topic do sumti: you ni'oni'o new section du'o modal: according to... no 0; none du'u abstraction: fact no'e scalar neutral .e AND: sumti noi incidental rel. clause .e'a indicator: permission nu abstraction: event .ei indicator pa 1 fa x1 sumti next papa 11 fa'o end-of-text pe identifying phrase fe x2 sumti next pe'i evidential: I opine! fi x3 sumti next pi . fo x4 sumti next pimu .5 fu x5 sumti next po alienable possession ga and/or: forethought po'e inalienable possess. ga'i indicator: high rank po'u identity phrase ganai if: forethought poi identifying clause ge'u end relative phrase pu before/past tense gi forethought medial re 2 gi'e and: bridi remei twosome, pair go'i last bridi; too; yes! reno 20 goi sumti definition ri the last sumti .i sentence link ru'a evidential: I assume! .ia indicator: belief/faith se x1/x2 conversion .ie indicator: agreement secau modal tag: without... ja'a it is true semau modal tag: more than je and: tanru, sentences si'e portion # selbri je'a scalar positive so 9 ji'a discursive: also ta that-there; those joi mixed-with 'and' te x1/x3 conversion ka abstraction: quality ti this-here; these ke tanru grouping to'e scalar opposite ke'a relative clause sumti tu that/those yonder ke'e end tanru grouping .ui indicator: happiness kei end abstraction va location: near ko imperative You! vau end of sumti list ko'a he/she/it - assigned ve x1/x4 conversion ku end description sumti vi location: here/at ku'i discursive: but vo 4 ku'o end relative clause vu location: far from la name follows xa 6 la'e the referent of xe x1/x5 conversion la'edi'u bridi of last sentence xu Is it true? le description sumti; the za'a evidential: observed ledu'u the fact that ... za'i abstraction: state leka the quality of ... ze 7 lenu the event of ... zo'e unspecified sumti lo description sumti; a .an. name: Ann lojban. name: Lojban mark. name: Mark meris. name: Mary tam. name: Tom brivla actually translate to a complete sentence indicating the place structures) bajra birka blari'o x1 is blue-green bridi brivla citka ckule cmalu cmavo cukta djarspageti djica djuno gismu jikca klama le'avla lujvo melbi nanla nunbajra x1 event of x2 runs on surface x3, limbs x4, gait x5 pelxu pluka prenu rafsi ricfu selbri stali sumti sutra tanru tavla titnanba x1 is sweet-bread/cake toldi vecnu zarci